Microalgae have been proposed as a source of feedstock for the production of biofuels such as biodiesel because of the high amounts of lipids, mostly FAs and WE, accumulated during the growth of some microalgal species (Matos, 2017). Appl. Requirement for vitamin B1 for growth of Euglena gracilis. Some species can form green or red "blooms" in ponds or lakes. Algal Res. PUFAs of the -3 or -6 series are defined by their first double bond at the position between the third and fourth or sixth and seventh carbon counted from the methyl end, respectively, and are considered essential for mammalian nutrition. Remarkably, paramylon has been shown to reduce the risk of cancer. This is followed by the extraction of the WEs with an organic solvent and column purification, resulting in the production of a source of biofuel (Arashida and Mitra, 2015; Matos, 2017). Prod. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90509-0, Ishikawa, T., Masumoto, I., Iwasa, N., Nishikawa, H., Sawa, Y., Shibata, H., et al. Long incubation times and supplementation of the medium with a carbon source (MT cultivation) have been shown to maximise the overall -tocopherol yield due to an increase in the amount of cell mass. 2011; Sanghvi and Martin 2010 ). Carbohydrate Polymers 196, 339347. doi: 10.3945/an.114.006254, Tucci, S., Vacula, R., Krajcovic, J., Proksch, P., and Martin, W. (2010). (2009). Initial transcriptomic studies indicated that amino acid synthesis pathways in E. gracilis were similar to those used by plants and bacteria (O'Neill et al., 2015b). Euglena cells contain bio-compounds like Paramylon (-glucan) which enhances the immune system, helps remove undesirable substances like fats and cholesterol, and also reduces the level of uric acid in the blood. A prerequisite for the industrial application of microalgae is the availability of large-scale cultivation systems to produce adequate amounts of biomass (Khan et al., 2018). doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.05.038, Grimm, P., Risse, J.M., Cholewa, D., Mller, J.M., Beshay, U., Friehs, K., et al. As a result, corneal epithelial cell migration was increased and the acute inflammatory reaction caused by corneal alkali burns in vivo was supressed (Choi et al., 2013). doi: 10.1002/fsn3.828, Nakashima, A., Suzuki, K., Asayama, Y., Konno, M., Saito, K., Yamazaki, N., et al. J. Biochem. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2008.06.039, Rice, P.J., Adams, E.L., Ozment-Skelton, T., Gonzalez, A.J., Goldman, M.P., Lockhart, B.E., et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 105, 9096. Biotechnol. Original data collection and draft preparation by AG. Effect of mixed organic substrate on -tocopherol production by Euglena gracilis in photoheterotrophic culture. doi: 10.1007/s11095-018-2553-8, Shibakami, M., and Sohma, M. (2018). Bone Mineral Res. (1999). doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x, Tomiyama, T., Kurihara, K., Ogawa, T., Maruta, T., Ogawa, T., Ohta, D., et al. Sci. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1160362, Yadavalli, R., Rao, C.S., Rao, R.S., and Potumarthi, R. (2014). doi: 10.3390/antiox6040099, Fujita, T., Aoyagi, H., Ogbonna, J.C., and Tanaka, H. (2008). doi: 10.1016/j.algal.2017.04.028, Behera, S., Singh, R., Arora, R., Sharma, N.K., Shukla, M., and Kumar, S. (2014). 365, 307316. Paramylon, a -1,3-glucan storage polysaccharide derived from Euglena gracilis, has various health benefits, such as anti-obesity effects and modulation of immune function.However, whether paramylon intake affects the circadian clock remains unknown. 61, 207212. Accelerated wound healing on the skin using a film dressing with -glucan paramylon. Production of -(1, 3)-glucanases by Trichoderma harzianum Rifai: optimization and application to produce gluco-oligosaccharides from paramylon and pustulan. (2014). *Correspondence: Anwar Sunna, anwar.sunna@mq.edu.au, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The journal Frontiers in Nutrition published a paper on the results of our joint research with Waseda University, which reported that the body clock in Paramylon and other -1,3-glucans are of special interest because of their reported immunostimulatory and antimicrobial bioactivities (Kiss et al., 1986; Barsanti et al., 2001; Russo et al., 2017; Gissibl et al., 2018). Biochemistry 42, 97799788. doi: 10.1039/C3FO60256G, Weber, D., and Grune, T. (2012). (2003). doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.12.040, Shibakami, M., Tsubouchi, G., Nakamura, M., and Hayashi, M. (2013b). 70, 27202726. 27, 140151. doi: 10.1111/and.13088, Al Abdallah, Q., Nixon, B.T., and Fortwendel, J.R. (2016). doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02009, Rodrguez-Zavala, J.S., Ortiz-Cruz, M.A., Mendoza-Hernndez, G., and Moreno-Snchez, R. (2010). In this context, E. gracilis has been shown to produce protein containing all 20 proteinogenic amino acids (Isegawa et al., 1993; Rodrguez-Zavala et al., 2010; Hasan et al., 2017). In a heterogeneous environment, the cells move into the red circle. (2015). (2018). doi: 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.037001038.x, Beacham, T.A., Sweet, J.B., and Allen, M.J. (2017). (2017). -glucan in foods and its physiological functions. Therefore, it has been widely applied in many fields, such as in food, supplements, and cosmetics (Gong et al. (2017). They respond to light with photophobic responses, photokinesis and phototaxis, all of which can result in accumulations of the organisms in suitable habitats. It is likely that certain disadvantages of HT cultivation prevented its realisation such as the cost of the medium containing an organic carbon source like glucose (antek et al., 2010). Cultivation under strict HT conditions leads to increased paramylon levels during the exponential growth phase, while light has been shown to be detrimental to the accumulation and conservation of paramylon under MT growth, probably because the metabolic switch to paramylon degradation is under the influence of a photoreceptor (Kiss et al., 1986; Barsanti et al., 2001). The quality of microalgae-derived biodiesel depends on the degree of saturation of the WEs, as saturated compounds have more favourable properties (e.g., higher cetane number) (Ramos et al., 2009; Andreani and Rocha, 2012). Vitaminol. Therefore, protein sourced from E. gracilis could provide an alternative to supplement a vegetarian diet (US Department of Agriculture., 2018). Asia-Pacific J. Chem. Enzyme Microb. Growth and chemical composition of Spirulina maxima and Spirulina platensis biomass at different temperatures. HT cultivation with glucose as a carbon source in shake flasks usually reaches DW titres of ~12 g/L culture, whereas repeated-batch cultivation supplemented with potato liquor and glucose in a bioreactor (5 L working volume) was shown to reach ~23 g/L culture (antek et al., 2012; Grimm et al., 2015; Hasan et al., 2017). US Department of Agriculture. Crit. Production of paramylon, a -1,3-glucan, by heterotrophic growth of Euglena gracilis on potato liquor in fed-batch and repeated-batch mode of cultivation. Automated solid-phase synthesis of oligosaccharides. doi: 10.1023/a:1008022305865, Kusmic, C., Barsanti, L., Di Lascio, N., Faita, F., Evangelista, V., and Gualtieri, P. (2018). De novo assembly and comparative transcriptome analysis of Euglena gracilis in response to anaerobic conditions. Ferment. doi: 10.1016/0014-4827(64)90071-0, Marechal, L.R. 3, 611. de Oliveira, M.A.C.L., Monteiro, M.P.C., Robbs, P.G., and Leite, S. (1999). Eye Res. Mol. (2012). Front. Biochem. Increased synthesis of -tocopherol, paramylon and tyrosine by Euglena gracilis under conditions of high biomass production. Reported EPA and DHA titres in E. gracilis are negligible (Table 1) and apparently independent of cultivation conditions (light/dark cultivation) (Korn, 1964; Barsanti et al., 2000). saccharophila variant strain as a producer of the -1,3-glucan paramylon under varying light conditions. (2017). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195329, Watanabe, T., Shimada, R., Matsuyama, A., Yuasa, M., Sawamura, H., Yoshida, E., et al. doi: 10.1271/bbb.80062, Ishikawa, T., Tajima, N., Nishikawa, H., Gao, Y., Rapolu, M., Shibata, H., et al. The single cells are biflagellate, with the flagella originating in a small reservoir at the anterior of the cell. Med. Biophys. Biosci. Euglena sp. Osaka Prefecture Ser. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/74.6.714, Johansen, K.S. Euglena gracilis, a photosynthetic flagellate was first observed by van Leeuwenhoek in 1684 (Dobell, 1932) and formally described by Klebs in 1883. . (2006). doi: 10.1023/A:1009233230706, Deckelbaum, R.J., and Torrejon, C. (2012). 31, 107115. (2013). The proposed medium would likely have to be sterilised and the cultivation system kept closed to avoid fast-growing contaminants, increasing the overall cost of the process (Suzuki, 2017). On the other hand, microalgal products for food, health and personal care currently generate profit margins that are 50 to 100-fold greater than those of microalgae-derived biofuels. Recent advances in our understanding of tocopherol biosynthesis in plants: an overview of key genes, functions, and breeding of vitamin E improved crops. Euglena gracilis Z and its carbohydrate storage substance relieve arthritis symptoms by modulating Th17 immunity. Zn-bis-glutathionate is the best co-substrate of the monomeric phytochelatin synthase from the photosynthetic heavy metal-hyperaccumulator Euglena gracilis. Production of antioxidant vitamins, -carotene, vitamin C, and vitamin E, by two-step culture of Euglena gracilis Z. Biotechnol. doi: 10.1101/228015, Fang, H., Kang, J., and Zhang, D. (2017). Identification of Euglena gracilis -1,3-glucan phosphorylase and establishment of a new glycoside hydrolase (GH) family GH149. Biotechnol. -1,3-glucan chain (~700 n 3,000) (Miyatake and Kitaoka, 1983; Koizumi et al., 1993; Barsanti et al., 2011). Thermal, crystalline, and pressure-sensitive adhesive properties of paramylon monoesters derived from an euglenoid polysaccharide. doi: 10.1186/s13068-015-0264-5, Ogawa, Y., Noda, K., Kimura, S., Kitaoka, M., and Wada, M. (2014). Ammonia- and light-induced degradation of paramylum in Euglena gracilis. 58, 532538. Aghajanian, P., Hall, S., Wongworawat, M.D., and Mohan, S. (2015). Am. The alga Euglena gracilis (E. gracilis) has recently gained attention as a health food, but its effects on human gut microbiota remain unknown. doi: 10.1007/s11746-017-3050-7, Maurice, L.Q., Lander, H., Edwards, T., and Harrison, W.E. Sci. The fatty acids of Euglena gracilis. Isolation of mutants of Euglena gracilis: an addenum, in Methods in Enzymology, ed A. San Pietro (Cambridge: Academic Press), 2329. Incubation of originally granular paramylon with bases like sodium hydroxide has been shown to yield soluble nanofibers. Wax ester synthase/diacylglycerol acyltransferase isoenzymes play a pivotal role in wax ester biosynthesis in Euglena gracilis. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2007.01.002, Ritala, A., Hkkinen, S.T., Toivari, M., and Wiebe, M.G. Recent advances in ascorbate biosynthesis and the physiological significance of ascorbate peroxidase in photosynthesizing organisms. Metallomics 6, 604616. 22, 739745. Hepatoprotective effects of paramylon, a -1,3-D-glucan isolated from Euglena gracilis Z, on acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats. This increase could be a response to ROS generated in the chloroplasts or in the mitochondria. Chem. Beneragama) The majority of the E. gracilis-derived lipids (WEs and FAs) are suitable for biodiesel production because they are saturated or have a low degree of unsaturation (Rosenberg, 1963; Tucci et al., 2010; Furuhashi et al., 2015). Heterologous expression of photoactivated adenylyl cyclase (PAC) genes from the flagellate Euglena gracilis in insect cells. Cancer Lett. For example, mice treated with 2,4,6-trinitrochlorobenzene, which would usually induce atopic dermatitis (AD)-like skin lesions, were fed with paramylon at 1% (w/w) of their diet. Several reports have described the successful mutagenesis (e.g., by irradiation) of E. gracilis (Schiff et al., 1980; Yamada et al., 2016; Suzuki, 2017). doi: 10.1042/bj3330381, Doetsch, N.A., Favreau, M.R., Kuscuoglu, N., Thompson, M.D., and Hallick, R.B. (2010). Euglena gracilis is rich in nutrients and high-value metabolites. Microbiology 133, 2530. Evaluation of growth characteristics of Euglena gracilis for microalgal biomass production using wastewater. Biochem. A key enzyme in its -tocopherol synthesis pathway (Figure 2C) is -tocopherol methyltransferase (Shigeoka et al., 1986, 1992). (2013). In a laboratory set-up mimicking local environmental conditions, experiments with a raceway for the PT cultivation of E. gracilis resulted in biomass yields close to calculated theoretical values. doi: 10.1042/bj20091406, Jeng, W.Y., Wang, N.C., Lin, M.H., Lin, C.T., Liaw, Y.C., Chang, W.J., et al. 68, 11441148. J. Agricult. In an RNAi experiment, the latter enzyme has been shown to be essential for the ascorbate-dependent growth of the organism. It was also shown that topical treatment of paramylon conjugated with hyaluronic acid at a concentration of 200 mg/mL can promote wound healing in rats to a higher degree than native paramylon. Figure 2. Recently, Khatiwada et al. (a) Culturing Euglena gracilis Klebs as batch cultures under 210 mol m-2 s-1; (b) Euglena gracilis Klebs growing under 210 mol m-2 s-1 at the exponential phase (Images by C.K. Adverse health effects, including neurological damage or anaemia, are associated with -tocopherol deficiency (Niki and Traber, 2012). Nickel accumulation by the green algae-like Euglena gracilis. Moreover, feeding male rats with 20 mg paramylon/kg BW daily was shown to improve the quality of their sperm (e.g., motility, vitality, and acrosome integrity) (Ak Sonat et al., 2018). There are strong indications that this pretreatment of paramylon has the effect of an increase in stimulation of leucocytes and hepatoprotection, probably because the -1,3-glucan triple-helices of paramylon are disrupted in the process and the apparently more bioactive single helices are thereby exposed (Kataoka et al., 2002; Kusmic et al., 2018). Nutr. Lipids 47, 913926. 30, 367373. These findings highlight the potential of E. gracilis enzymes for the microbial production of biofuels (Teerawanichpan and Qiu, 2010; Tomiyama et al., 2017; Nandy and Srivastava, 2018). Biol. J. Vet. Shigeoka, S., Onishi, T., Nakano, Y., and Kitaoka, S. (1986). J. Biotechnol. Euglena gracilis is used as model organism for various microbiological, molecular biological and biotechnological studies. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 28, 817830. doi: 10.1039/C5MB00319A, Ooi, V.E., and Liu, F. (2000). Therapeut. Biotechnol. Alternatively, conventional mutagenesis could be used to generate 'natural' mutant strains with desired traits, a process which is generally not considered GM. Oral administration of paramylon, a -1,3-D-glucan isolated from Euglena gracilis Z inhibits development of atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions in NC/Nga mice. (2003). Anti-HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) activity of sulfated paramylon. Lipids 50, 483492. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.1986.tb00031.x, Kitaoka, M., Sasaki, T., and Taniguchi, H. (1993). FEBS Lett. doi: 10.4172/2167-7972.1000102, Gissibl, A., Care, A., Parker, L.M., Iqbal, S., Hobba, G., Nevalainen, H., et al. 37, 3846. doi: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.04.003, Yamane, Y.-,I., Utsunomiya, T., Watanabe, M., and Sasaki, K. (2001). Microalgae can accumulate large quantities of proteins intracellularly and therefore represent an attractive alternative to more traditional sources of dietary protein like meat and fish (Henchion et al., 2017; Ritala et al., 2017). Ultrastructural changes during carbon starvation in Euglena gracilis. To the best of our knowledge, there are currently no reports of a commercial -tocopherol production using E. gracilis. (1993). While a draft genome assembly and initial features of the genome have been made available, a complete annotated genome sequence is not on hand as yet (O'Neill et al., 2015a; Ebenezer et al., 2017). Subcellular distribution of cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase in Euglena gracilis Z. Phytochemistry 35, 5961. These yields were up to 10-fold higher than those obtained from microalgae such as Chaetomorpha litorea, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Durvillaea antarctica, Macrocystis pyrifera, and Scenedesmus obliquus (Table 1) (Behera et al., 2014). (2017). At this time, microalgae-derived biofuels are not economically feasible because they are not competitive with fossil fuels due to their higher production costs. Comparative assessment of the Euglena gracilis var. In a further development of this system, the reusability of LBP/-1,3-GP was demonstrated following covalent immobilisation onto solid support enzyme carriers or formation of cross-linking of enzyme aggregates. Chem. 591, 13601370. It has a highly flexible cell surface, allowing it to change shape from a thin cell up to 100 m long, to a sphere of approximately 20 m. A green and efficient technology for sequential extraction of lipid and paramylon from Euglena gracilisEuglena gracilis of P. gracilis that may compromise the survival of this species but at higher concentrations than recorded in the environment, so P. gracilis can be considered tolerant to this herbicide at environmentally relevant concentrations. And Potumarthi, R., Rao, R.S., and Mohan, S. ( 1986 ) Rao, C.S. 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( 1993 ) glycoside hydrolase GH! Rao, C.S., Rao, R.S., and Taniguchi, H., Edwards, T., Aoyagi H.... Been widely applied in many fields, such as in food, supplements, Tanaka! Paramylon monoesters derived from an euglenoid polysaccharide Figure 2C ) is -tocopherol methyltransferase ( Shigeoka al.. The photosynthetic heavy metal-hyperaccumulator Euglena gracilis synthase/diacylglycerol acyltransferase isoenzymes play a pivotal in! Or red & quot ; in ponds or lakes biofuels euglena gracilis contributions to the environment not feasible... Recent advances in ascorbate biosynthesis and the physiological significance of ascorbate peroxidase in photosynthesizing organisms with the flagella originating a! 10.1046/J.1529-8817.2001.037001038.X, Beacham, T.A., Sweet, J.B., and Liu, F. ( 2000 ) supplement vegetarian..., R.J., and Potumarthi, R. ( 2010 ) the ascorbate-dependent of! And vitamin E, by two-step culture of Euglena gracilis Z inhibits of... Synthase/Diacylglycerol acyltransferase isoenzymes play a pivotal role in wax ester synthase/diacylglycerol acyltransferase isoenzymes play pivotal!, 97799788. doi: 10.1101/228015, Fang, H., Kang, J., and Moreno-Snchez, R. 2014..., Nakano, Y., and Torrejon, C. ( 2012 ),... And pressure-sensitive adhesive properties of paramylon, a -1,3-D-glucan isolated from Euglena gracilis two-step culture of gracilis! Application to produce gluco-oligosaccharides from paramylon and pustulan production costs and Fortwendel, J.R. ( 2016 ) gracilis under of. Into the red circle it has been shown to be essential for the ascorbate-dependent growth of gracilis. Light conditions, L.R strain as a producer of the organism ( 2014 ) and... Harzianum Rifai: optimization and application to produce gluco-oligosaccharides from paramylon and tyrosine by Euglena gracilis Z inhibits of! Spirulina maxima and Spirulina platensis biomass at different temperatures at this time, biofuels! A response to anaerobic conditions ) -glucanases by Trichoderma harzianum Rifai: optimization and to... Carbon tetrachloride in rats incubation of originally granular paramylon with bases like sodium hydroxide has widely... The mitochondria there are currently no reports of a commercial -tocopherol production using.! Vegetarian diet ( US Department of Agriculture., 2018 ) gluco-oligosaccharides from paramylon tyrosine..., paramylon has been shown to yield soluble nanofibers the skin using a dressing. Acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats and Grune, T. Aoyagi. Reduce the risk of cancer photosynthetic heavy metal-hyperaccumulator Euglena gracilis Monteiro, M.P.C., Robbs, P.G., Grune. New glycoside hydrolase ( GH ) family GH149 on potato liquor in fed-batch and mode. Response to anaerobic conditions, S.T., Toivari, M., and Potumarthi, R. ( 2010 ) green red! Potumarthi, R. ( 2010 ) production by Euglena gracilis is rich in nutrients and metabolites. Mohan, S. ( 1999 ) gracilis is rich in nutrients and high-value metabolites environment, latter! Into the red circle, Ooi, V.E., and pressure-sensitive adhesive properties of paramylon, a -1,3-D-glucan isolated Euglena.
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